In this essay I discuss a new wave of female-dominated punk, which has flooded social media and music sharing platforms over the past decade. This new movement expresses different ideas about gender identity and feminism influenced by current sociopolitical shifts, and reflects the evolution of a genre which is branching out and exploring new ways to approach gender and identity in music. Just as the internet has greatly impacted each of our lives in increasing intensity, online culture has also affected both feminist discourse and musical expression. I discuss trends in punk music within the 21st Century alongside the transition of culture as it has moved from local scenes to vast online spaces. Seeking to examine how the introduction of the internet has changed the landscape of feminism and the expression of this through punk music which exists both in person and within an online space. The genre, much like all other musical genres, can be viewed as a cultural artefact which reflects current attitudes towards feminism. This aids in constructing useful reflections of gender debates as they present themselves in alternative music today. Within this discussion I examine recent feminist discourse and provide some examples of how modern feminism has inspired the new and growing resurgence of feminist punk music.

As feminism has evolved out of the 1990s and into the 21st century, postfeminism has also evolved alongside it, enabled in part by internet platforms.¹ In the recent decade, conversations about feminism online have grown as more individuals have been able to voice their opinions on the internet.² This has happened simultaneously with another rise in the volume of feminist punk music appearing on the scene. Today, feminists, postfeminists and anti-feminists are engaging in constant discourse on internet forums and social media platforms and this has also helped to spark new feminist punk material, with lyrics and sentiments which react to current gender debates. This has occurred in the wake of fourth-wave feminism, of which the origins are debated, but is generally accepted to have begun with the rise of feminist content and activism on the internet.³ Fourth-wave feminism is fundamentally concerned with discussions of rape culture, and the continuing impacts of choice feminism and freedom to self-identify. These feminists of recent years are concerned with upholding the relevance of feminism and supporting previous movements against the ever-growing pressure of anti-feminists, and much of this is expressed through the medium of alternative music.

The fourth wave of feminism, although reinstating and reclaiming many of the plights of both second and third-wave feminism, is vastly different in its medium and “form”.⁴ Today’s feminism exists in an environment which is fully integrated with the internet and social media. As Caterina Peroni and Lidia Rodak express, this has its advantages, it allows women to connect with each other across the globe, initiating a worldwide community of modern feminists. Online forums and social media allow many more women to mobilise and organise in far greater numbers than in pre-internet eras, which would mostly only include local or national feminist groups.⁵ This often resulted in white middle-class feminists representing the forefront of the feminist message. However, with the internet facilitating feminist discourse on a global level, this is becoming less apparent. Feminism, as it exists on the internet, has also allowed many young women to explore their own viewpoints, find community, and experiment with their own ideas of gender. This new feminism is vastly different in form but not necessarily in message, this community of solidarity facilitated by online media is reminiscent of second-wave feminist notions of sisterhood, and the focus on global feminism and individual perspectives are taken from the third-wave feminist ideology.⁶ A rising trend in both postfeminist and anti-feminist views also being expressed on the internet has incentivised many to feel the need to express that historical feminist arguments, such as those of self-determination and freedom of choice, are still needed and necessary. This has led to protest movements which span the globe, such as SlutWalk, and the advent of “hashtag feminism”,⁷ exemplified by movements such as the #MeToo movement,⁸ which has used the internet to protest sexual assault and rape culture by encouraging women to share their experiences and find community.⁹

An interesting example of feminist punk occurred with the dawn of fourth-wave feminism. In 2012, Russian activist group, Pussy Riot, enacted their ‘Punk Prayer’ performance in Moscow’s Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. This performance was one of a run of spontaneous punk gigs protesting political issues in Russia, this time to protest the re-election of President Putin.¹⁰ Pussy Riot regularly expressed feminist ideology with their performances, and this specific one gained huge media attention globally, becoming an iconic feminist event within Western popular culture. However, Pussy Riot are not, fundamentally, a punk band. The band members recognised punk music as an effective vessel for protest¹¹ and looked to inspirations such as Bikini Kill and Bratmobile from the 90s riot grrrl feminist punk movement for the blueprint of how to enact a successful protest gig with a feminist message.¹² The impromptu concerts put on by Pussy Riot were carefully orchestrated to emulate the actions of riot grrrls, to reinstate their message within different political contexts. Each concert was performed in a public place, with the most provocative being the Cathedral in which their ‘punk prayer’ was premiered. Their stylistic choices both visually, with their colourful balaclavas, and musically, with their references to 90s feminist punk, were designed with the exact goal to utilise the possibilities of modern media and garner online attention as a strategy to spread awareness and attract people to their cause.¹³ This combination of location, style, and message, however, led to their arrest and the band members were later sentenced to two years in prison. This likely only strengthened support for the group within Russian activist circles and Western popular culture. This example marks the beginning of fourth-wave feminism being expressed through female punk music while also taking advantage of the tools the internet can provide for activists.

21st Century Postfeminism

It is also important to consider the postfeminist trends occurring at the same time as early fourth-wave feminism. Postfeminist ideologies surround a central theme, that the goals of second and third-wave feminists have been achieved, and therefore, feminism is no longer necessary in modern society – this has both positive and negative connotations. Previous to Pussy Riot’s ‘Punk Prayer’, the early 2000s had seen huge fluctuations in attitudes to feminism. Although postfeminism has existed since the 1980s, the effects of postfeminist beliefs can be seen very clearly throughout the early 2000s and 2010s.¹⁴ Within Western society, internalised views of postfeminism are evident, in a study by Shauna Pomerantz, Rebecca Raby, and Andrea Stefanik, “Girls Run the World? Caught Between Sexism and Postfeminism in School”¹⁵ it was found that by 2013, teenage schoolgirls mostly expressed that they did not experience sexism in school, and that sexism was a thing of the past, and therefore so was feminism. The girls demonstrated postfeminist views, such as that girls hold most of the power over the boys in school, and that they naturally were smarter and better looking. But also expressed that they experienced much more pressure than the boys to be these things, because the boys were allowed to underperform or present socially unacceptable behaviour.¹⁶ However, the girls refused any type of victim status, even while describing sexism that they had experienced, especially within social circles. As the study concludes, the girls did describe sexist events occurring within their lives but did not possess the language or knowledge to recognise this as sexism, it was just normal and could be explained through the postfeminist views that each girl must take initiative to work harder than the boys, and they could achieve more. Most of the young girls saw this as fair, and when asked if they identified as feminist, they denied the label, one rejecting it as a bad word associated with “angry” women.¹⁷ Examples such as these of internalised postfeminism are clear within the arts and culture of the early 2000s, and the identity of feminism is still often rejected today. On the internet, the word “feminist” is often seen as a dirty word, which only represents the most radical of views.

However, since this study, feminism online and within social circles has grown. Perhaps as the internet has facilitated the expression of more anti-feminist views, and anti-feminist movements have utilised the internet to mobilise against feminism, women have started to experience sexism increasingly.¹⁸ Rosalind Gill debates whether we are moving towards a post-postfeminist movement indicating that, just as postfeminists believe that feminism is a historical fact and belongs in the past, post-postfeminists believe that postfeminist arguments are also outdated, and that feminism is still necessary, which is similar, or maybe even synonymous with the plight of fourth-wave feminism.¹⁹

Postfeminism and Pop-Punk

After the influence of third-wave feminism had waned and the power of riot grrrl punks had been diluted by critical media coverage and divisions within the scene, punk music went through a period of increasing masculine dominance once again. Bands such as Hole and No Doubt represented the state of female-fronted punk, grunge, and alternative music in the immediate wake of riot grrrl influence, and strategically borrowed elements of their aesthetics and sound in order to create a more marketable and widely popular version of female punk. This can be seen in Courtney Love’s visual style of girlish dresses, paired with explicit self-sexualisation and almost screamed vocals, which often discuss similar topics to those expressed by riot grrrls. Or No Doubt’s Gwen Stefani sarcastically singing “I’m just a girl” in their popular track of the same name, while clearly pushing a feminist message which address societal issues such as the rights and safety of women.²⁰ These examples, among others, were much more mainstream and received more success than their riot grrrl inspirations, however, the feminist message also appeared less forceful, and could be considered a move towards postfeminist trends,²¹ as the raw riot grrrl sound was being adapted to represent a more marketable and media-friendly version of feminist punk. This allowed for a greater female presence within more mainstream alternative music, but at the cost of the impact of the feminist arguments which created the foundations for these artists. Success required feminist attitudes to be diluted and made into more marketable versions of themselves.

 In the late 1990s and early 2000s, punk experienced another era within which all-male bands and artists thrived,²² and very few female artists received as much success, let alone all or majority-female bands. The sound of this time is often defined as pop-punk, with many of the most influential bands employing a playful version of the punk sound, with fewer political messages apparent in the lyrics. However, when the extremely popular genre of pop-punk is examined more closely, it can be argued that postfeminist ideologies form much of the underlying message. Whether this is intentional, or rather a product or reflection of the state of feminist politics in society at the beginning of the 2000s, is also worth investigating. As the 90s punk movements of riot grrrl and female-led grunge softened, the impacts of third-wave feminism also waned. A new wave of punk music swept popular culture in the form of pop-punk which was almost exclusively male-dominated. In pop-punk, we can see many postfeminist ideologies being expressed, including men viewing women as more powerful, hyper feminine and sexual as a positive rather than a negative, but not much of this is expressed by women.

Pop-punk is dominated by the antics and imagery of young, male, yet harmless rebellion. In contrast to previous punk movements, which often expressed political beliefs, pop-punk lyrics focused on the more isolated struggles of teenage boys and young adult men growing up in North America. This often manifested in imagery of drinking, partying, and of course, young women. Within analysis of the lyrical content of pop-punk music, representations of women often reflect postfeminist beliefs, such as the concept that women are already equal and perhaps even more powerful than men in society.²³ There are many examples of pop-punk songs which express how young men felt powerless in comparison to their female counterparts when it came to relationships and dating. For example, Blink-182’s “First Date”, which appears alongside other tracks of the same nature on the influential album Take Off Your Pants and Your Jacket, the second verse reads:

In the car, I just can’t wait

To pick you up on our very first date

Is it cool if I hold your hand?

Is it wrong if I think it’s lame to dance?

Do you like my stupid hair?

Would you guess that I didn’t know what to wear?

I’m just scared of what you think

You make me nervous so I really can’t eat.

This song is a relatively unaggressive version of postfeminist beliefs, and is not necessarily anti-feminist in any way, but it exemplifies the ideology expressed by an overwhelming number of bands in the scene that women had far more social power than men. Amongst these harmless-appearing songs, however, a culture of dismissing women’s rights was growing, and pop-punk became a boy’s club of sorts.

Punk genres remained male dominated for some time after 2000, and postfeminist views also remained prominent in gender discussions within society. However, with the advent of the internet, social media and music sharing platforms, the landscape of feminism and feminist identity within society and music has changed dramatically. The internet has facilitated the creation of fourth-wave feminism, providing forums to those who represent postfeminist or anti-feminist viewpoints. This has made the past decade of feminist discourse perhaps the most complex, convoluted and divided in the history of gender debates.²⁴ At times it appears as if each of these groups has grown hugely, but this may be a result of the internet’s ability to spread the views of many ordinary users. The internet allows for constant debates over sociopolitical topics, such as feminism, and so the number of non-academic discussions of feminism, postfeminism and anti-feminism has grown as internet forums have encouraged individuals from every social, political and geographical background to share their opinions. It is also important to remember that, with the complexity of feminist discourse online, many postfeminist ideologies are intertwined with new feminism.²⁵ 

There is frequent discourse about whether fourth-wave feminism can even be regarded as a new wave of feminism, or rather whether the sheer fact of this new type of feminism existing in online spaces is enough to classify a new wave.²⁶ However, whether fourth-wave feminism is or is not a valid era of feminism is not the discussion I will be having here, instead, I am using fourth-wave feminism as a theoretical lens through which to view female punk, as a product of feminist ideology today. Alongside other viewpoints, such as the continuing influence of postfeminism in modern society and on the internet. But despite its differences, I would consider fourth-wave feminism another evolution of second and third-wave feminism. This new movement reinstates many of the messages pioneered by both second and third-wave feminists, such as those of choice feminism, self-determination, self-identity and, much like the message of riot grrrl punks, support for one another.²⁷

Global Feminism and Fourth-Wave Feminist Punk

Fourth-wave feminism does have defining factors which make it very different from previous eras of feminism, and use of the internet as a medium for activism and expression is perhaps the most important of these. The internet has the tendency to make the world seem extremely connected, in this way feminists with similar views have been able to connect, despite geographical barriers.²⁸ This is reflected in the new and fast-growing movement of female-led punk, with female-fronted and feminist punk bands from all over the world contributing to this new wave. This is rather different to the more local scenes from which riot grrrl and other previous feminist punk movements sprang from. Feminist punk bands from around the world include examples such as; The Linda Lindas (LA), Skinny Girl Diet and Hands Off Gretel (both from the UK), Amyl and the Sniffers (Australia), Otoboke Beaver (Japan). In an interesting article with NPR, frontwoman of Otoboke Beaver, Accorinrin, describes how the highly connected modern world allowed the band to achieve success, not just outside of their hometown Kyoto, but on a global scale. She also explains how this success allowed the band to travel and tour outside of Japan, and through this they proudly embraced the feminist label which they had previously rejected.²⁹ Otoboke Beaver’s unique sound takes inspiration from many types of punk. Influences of subgenres such as riot grrrl and ska punk are evident, in combination with early Japanese female punk inspirations, such as Shonen Knife.³⁰ The women combine riot rrrrl-esque statements in the style of a protest chant, with fast and simple guitar riffs, and bouncy ska-like rhythms. The lyrical content of the music also reflects similarities to riot grrrl and other feminist punk. For example, on their highly successful recent album, Super Champon, Otoboke Beaver address feminist issues within Japanese culture, singing in a mixture of Japanese and English, sometimes in the same sentence. The album features tracks such as ‘I am not maternal’ and ‘I won’t dish out salads’ – protesting the expectations of gender roles in Japanese culture.

It is clear that the influence of recent feminist movements impacted the music and ideology of Otoboke Beaver. The shift in identity which can be seen through comparing interviews with the band is evident of an understanding shaped by new ideas of feminism.³¹ As late as 2018, the band rejected the feminist label, stating that the lyrical content of the music expresses only their personal experiences and opinions, not any political agenda.³² But even before self-identifying as feminists, the band were undeniably spreading a feminist message through their musical style and lyrical content. In 2022³³ and 2023,³⁴ the band appeared to have a change in attitude towards the feminist label, this appears to be primarily because the experience of connecting with other feminist punk bands globally allowed them to identify as part of a wider feminist culture.³⁵ This makes sense, as the band engages with similar feminist debates to those of third and fourth-wave feminism, such as valuing choice, self-determination and creating safe spaces for women. This is just one example of how the online nature of fourth-wave feminism has impacted the musical outlet of feminist punk, the new popularity that the genre has experienced is global in nature and addresses feminist issues in a variety of countries and cultures. This also relates to the inclusive message that fourth-wave feminism aims to represent, in attempts to move further away from the stereotypical white, middle class, nature of past feminist eras.

Feminist punk, or punk music with women as the face of the genre, has been rapidly regaining popularity in recent years. In comparison to 10 years ago, when the impacts of postfeminism appeared to be thoroughly internalised within the worldviews of most teenage girls in western society.³⁶ Young women today are increasingly engaging, once again, with the feminist label. This can be seen through the example of Otoboke Beaver above, as a group of artists who formed before fourth-wave feminism, however gained popularity, and a feminist identity with the current upsurge in female punk. But this can also be seen in younger, newer, bands making up part of the new movement of feminist punk, whose childhoods and teenage years were impacted greatly by new feminism and internet culture, allowing them to explore gender debates from many angles and often choosing to engage with modern feminism. The Linda Lindas are an example of this, as a band who are rapidly gaining popularity, the members are surprisingly young to be engaging with such sociopolitical topics. A major theme in feminist discourse throughout the past decade, one which cannot be ignored, is the tendency for discussions to also consider other sociopolitical debates, such as those surrounding gender-fluidity and race. This is reflected greatly in the trends we see in punk bands today, with far greater racial diversity, and the emergence of the queer-punk subgenre. The nature of the fourth wave of feminism is that of personal opinion, which is also identified in the third wave, but the fourth wave extends this to all people, on a global scale, inclusive of race and gender variations.³⁷ As Peroni and Rodak point out, with the goal to take into account the opinions of all people, the fourth wave of feminism must be viewed through an anti-essentialist lens, with the belief that the experiences of feminism for each person will be different and affected by other geographical, social and cultural factors.³⁸ 

The Linda Lindas recently rose to fame with their song ‘Racist Sexist Boy’, which reads as a classic feminist punk song, filled with angst underpinning simple lyrics and guitar riffs. The makeup of this new feminist punk band is strikingly different to those of previous feminist punk movements. The band consists of four teenagers of colour, who have all grown up under the influence of feminism on the internet and during the COVID-19 pandemic; a time when young people only had the internet for social interaction with their peers. The Linda Lindas reflect a distinct fourth-wave feminist viewpoint through their music, but also in interviews. For example, in a cover article with Kerrang! in 2022, the Linda Lindas’ mission statement is summed up as “everybody’s voice is important, no matter their race, gender or age, and that no-one is too small to make a difference.”³⁹ It is clear that these young artists have been greatly affected and inspired by feminist discourse online, but also, fourth-wave feminism on the internet has allowed these young women a platform for their musical expression, and a place for them to explore their identities. “Racist Sexist Boy” can also be interpreted as a direct backlash to popular postfeminist and anti-feminist arguments which are common online. The Lyrics read:

You say mean stuff and

You close your mind to things you don’t like

You turn away from what you don’t wanna see

The general concept of “Racist Sexist Boy” mirrors the fourth-wave characteristic of “call out culture”, where sexism can be easily identified and called out online, a concept which is clearly evolved from third-wave feminism.⁴⁰ The lyrics above are common criticisms to those with anti-feminist views online, closed-mindedness and ignorance being common retorts from feminists online. Much of this discussion is similar to that which relates to riot grrrl punk music and their ideologies of self-determination and self-identity, alongside reclaiming safe spaces for women. In the modern world, these spaces that feminists seek to reclaim are not only physical, but also exist as online spaces, where it has become increasingly apparent that these spaces are filled with sexist rhetoric.

In many ways, all female punk bands since the mid-90s are compared and measured, in some ways, to the legacy and impact of riot grrrl. This shows how much the short movement has stuck in the minds of artists and audiences alike when it comes to evaluating modern feminist punk, and although some reject the label and some embrace the comparison, it is undeniable that riot grrrl made a huge impact in opening doors for women within the punk genre, artists and audiences alike. The Linda Lindas are one of such bands which have been regarded as “carrying on the riot grrrl legacy”, and express that they are flattered by this.⁴¹ However, the riot grrrl label also comes with a large amount of pressure for the band members. Comparisons to riot grrrl for fourth-wave feminist bands are usually intended to be complimentary, however sometimes these comparisons are inaccurate, as the nature of the feminism which new bands promote is vastly different, despite having some similar or continued aims. The Linda Lindas’ reaction to riot grrrl is understandably mixed, as the band was recognised by Kathleen Hanna of Bikini Kill, and supported the iconic band on their recent reunion tour. In this way, The Linda Lindas’ reputation is now intertwined with riot grrrl, but the band strives to create their own modern identity. The assimilation of the riot grrrl identity into modern feminist punk is an interesting trend. The identity of the new, modern feminist punk woman is connected to riot grrrl, however reflects stark differences due to the impact of identity creation within online spaces. Although still identifying as rebellious girls, The Linda Lindas reflect a modern attitude which strives to experience feminist identity in a new way.

Newer feminist punk is reflective of a generation which mirrors the actions and attitudes of the early 90s, however the modes of expression differ vastly, similarly to how the “form” of fourth-wave feminism differs to previous eras.⁴² Online spaces allow for freedom of experimentation with identity and gender in much wider contexts,⁴³ and the diversity of this can be seen when examining modern expressions of gender identity and feminist identities in current punk music. Variations in sound, style and, expression within feminist punk reflects a much more all-encompassing representation of global feminism, and the countless unique circumstances and viewpoints of the artists within the genre. This in turn, indicates that a new and distinct form of feminism is developing globally, and is translating into a punk feminism with new and modern identities.

Queer-Punk and Beyond

The emergence of subgenres, such as queer-punk, also points to new research possibilities extending from feminist studies and into the analysis of gender identity and performativity in popular and alternative musical expression. Extended gender debates are reflected in the subgenre of queer-punk, and these bands often identify themselves as an extension or relative of feminist punk, utilising musical expression and punk aggression to spread their sociopolitical messages. Bands which could be regarded as part of the new feminist punk movement, such as Destroy Boys and Lambrini Girls, are also reflective of the queer-punk genre, exemplifying this overlap. Just as the riot grrrls of the early 90s aimed to reclaim sexist labels such as “slut”, queer-punk is part of a recent aim to reclaim the term “queer”, which has historically been derogatory. Many of the members of bands such as these identify as non-binary and/or queer, and the lyrical content of their music reflects both struggles with gender identity and sexism. For example, Lambrini Girls’ 2024 release ‘Body of Mine’ reflects the feelings of the band members as they experience pressure to present in an ultra-feminine fashion in order to “fit in”. The emergence of this genre and its growing popularity could certainly indicate new research possibilities into the expression of gender in alternative music, examining the cultural and musical expressions of growing debates surrounding gender fluidity and queer culture. Alongside this, intersectional feminism becoming so popular within recent years points to new research opportunities in the realms of punk, the internet, and intersectionality, examining how far each of these overlap with feminist and queer-punk genres, and how this manifests in the form of musical expression.

Feminist movements and ideologies tend to be one of the main driving forces, inspirations, and even predictors of female punk subgenres. But also, postfeminist and anti-feminist arguments seem to impact trends in punk music greatly. Punk itself often has a major part to play in impacting and interacting with feminist movements, with modern punk music today allowing both artists and fans to connect with feminist identities and express their viewpoints online in a similar fashion to their predecessors, only with even further reach. Punk music itself is an often-underestimated source of cultural reflection and the genre, being highly political and rebellious in its innate form, provides useful insight into the sociopolitical opinions of artists and activists. Therefore examining punk music from a particular time period can reflect the opinions of young people in a way that exudes authenticity. With this in mind, it is clear that the new wave of feminist punk reflects a growing interest in feminism, inspired by the internet’s ability to connect young feminists globally.

1. Emilie, Lawrence and Jessica Ringrose, ‘@Notofeminism, #Feministsareugly, and Misandry MemesHow Social Media Feminist Humor is Calling out Antifeminism’, in Emergent Feminisms, 1st ed., ed. by Jessalynn Keller and Maureen Ryan (New York: Routledge, 2018), 212-215. ↩︎
2. Caterina Peroni and Lidia Rodak, ‘Introduction. The Fourth Wave of Feminism: From Social Networking and Self-Determination to Sisterhood’, Oñati socio-legal series 10, no. 1S (2020), 5S. ↩︎
3. Nicola Rivers, Postfeminism(s) and the Arrival of the Fourth Wave: Turning Tides (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 134. ↩︎
4. Peroni and Rodak, ‘Introduction. The Fourth Wave’, 6S. ↩︎
5. Ibid, 5S-7S. ↩︎
6. Ibid, 4S ↩︎
7. Kitsy Dixon, ‘Feminist Online Identity: Analyzing the Presence of Hashtag Feminism’, Journal of Arts and Humanities 3 (7) (2014), 34–40.  ↩︎
8. Peroni and Rodak, ‘Introduction. The Fourth Wave’, 5S. ↩︎
9. Me Too, ‘Vision and Theory of Change’, Me Too, https://metoomvmt.org/get-to-know-us/vision-theory-of-change/ [Accessed 30 September 2023]. ↩︎
10. William Osgerby, Subcultures, Popular Music and Social Change (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 1. ↩︎
11. Yngvar B. Steinholt, ‘Kitten Heresy: Lost Contexts of Pussy Riot’s Punk Prayer’, Popular Music and Society, 36:1 (2013), 122. ↩︎
12. Osgerby, Subcultures, 1-2. ↩︎
13. Steinholt, ‘Kitten Heresy’, 121. ↩︎
14.  Rivers, Postfeminism(s), 8. ↩︎
15. Shauna Pomerantz, Rebecca Raby and Andrea Stefanik, ‘Girls Run the World?: Caught Between Sexism and Postfeminism in School’, Gender & Society 27, no. 2 (2013). ↩︎
16. Ibid, 196-198. ↩︎
17. Ibid, 204. ↩︎
18. Rivers, Postfeminism(s), 113-117. ↩︎
19. Rosalind Gill, ‘Post-Postfeminism?: New Feminist Visibilities in Postfeminist Times’, Feminist Media Studies 16, no. 4 (2016), 610-630. ↩︎
20. Gayle Wald, ‘Just a Girl? Rock Music, Feminism, and the Cultural Construction of Female Youth’, Signs, 23, no. 3 (1998), 585–589. ↩︎
21. Anna Feigenbaum, ‘5. Remapping the Resonances of Riot Grrrl: Feminisms, Postfeminisms, and “Processes” of Punk’, in Interrogating Postfeminism: Gender and the Politics of Popular Culture, ed. by Diane Negra, Yvonne Tasker and Lynn Spigel, (New York, USA: Duke University Press, 2007), 149. ↩︎
22. Gareth Schott, ‘“All Of My Life, Just Like I Was One Of Them”: Transitioning Punk in Misogyny, Toxic Masculinity, and Heteronormativity in Post-2000 Popular Music’, in Misogyny, Toxic Masculinity, and Heteronormativity in Post-2000 Popular Music, ed. by G Fosbraey and N Puckey (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021), 219. ↩︎
23. Pomerantz, Raby, and Stefanik, ‘Girls Run the World?’, 195. ↩︎
24. Gill, ‘Post-Postfeminism?’, 613. ↩︎
25. Rosalind Gill, “Postfeminism and the New Cultural Life of Feminism”, Diffractions, (6) (2016), 1-2. ↩︎
26. Lawrence and Ringrose, ‘@Notofeminism’, 213. ↩︎
27. Peroni and Rodak. ‘Introduction. The Fourth Wave’, 4S. ↩︎
28. Rivers, Postfeminism(s), 127-128. ↩︎
29. Zhenzhen Yu, ‘Otoboke Beaver, the fierce and funny punk band, finds new courage’, NPR Music (2022), https://www.npr.org/2022/06/02/1102274080/otoboke-beaver-the-fierce-and-funny-punk-band-finds-new-courage [Accessed 29 September 2023]. ↩︎
30. Vivien Goldman, Revenge of the She-Punks: A Feminist Music History from Poly Styrene to Pussy Riot (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2019). 68. ↩︎
31. Zhenzhen Yu, ‘Otoboke Beaver: Loud, Misunderstood, and Loving It’, Rolling Stone (2023) https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/otoboke-beaver-japanese-punk-interview-1234767899/ [Accessed 29 September 2023]. ↩︎
32. Vrinda Jagota, ‘Itekoma Hits: Otoboke Beaver’, Pitchfork https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/otoboke-beaver-itekoma-hits/#:~:text=Otoboke%20Beaver%20have%20said%20that,is%20power%20in%20hearing%20a ↩︎
33. Yu, ‘Otoboke Beaver, The Fierce and Funny’. ↩︎
34. Yu, ‘Otoboke Beaver: Loud, Misunderstood’. ↩︎
35. Yu, ‘Otoboke Beaver, The Fierce and Funny’. ↩︎
36. Pomerantz, Raby, and Stefanik, ‘Girls Run the World?’, 198-199. ↩︎
37.  Peroni and Rodak. ‘Introduction. The Fourth Wave’, 4S-8S. ↩︎
38. Ibid. ↩︎
39. Emma Wilkes, ‘The Linda Lindas: “Whatever you have to say, you should say and be proud of it”’, Kerrang (2022), https://www.kerrang.com/the-linda-lindas-interview-growing-up-punk-cover-story [Accessed 20 September 2023]. ↩︎
40. Ealasaid Munro, “Feminism: A Fourth Wave?”, Political Insight 4:2 (2013), 23. ↩︎
41. Julie Sabatier, ‘‘Starting a Riot’ episode 6: Don’t Call Me That’, Starting a Riot, OPB, 13 July 2023, https://www.opb.org/article/2023/07/13/starting-a-riot-episode-6-dont-call-me-that/ ↩︎
42. Peroni and Rodak, ‘Introduction. The Fourth Wave’, 6S. ↩︎
43.  Ibid, 7S. ↩︎