Third-wave feminism, alongside postfeminism and later movements, can be described as a counter-movement to the second and first waves of feminism. Of course, these earlier feminist eras laid the foundations for third-wave feminism. However, the divided nature of second-wave feminism and their chosen priorities sparked many third-wave feminists to identify their movement as a counter to second-wave feminism, while simultaneously being an evolution. Although second-wave feminism had an undeniable impact on women’s equality, the movement was certainly divided in ideologies. Attitudes towards sexuality were especially divisive amongst second-wave feminists, with a “gay-straight divide” becoming apparent through differing attitudes towards heterosexual women’s contributions to patriarchy.¹ Sex work and pornography also divided second-wave feminists into two camps: those who sought to reclaim these spaces and seek empowerment, and those who viewed sex work as degrading and anti-feminist. This contributed to the formation of opposing groups within feminist thought, and consequently, caused the feminist message to become weaker, without the solidarity needed for the messages to be effective. Second wave feminism is also often criticised for only representing the voices of white women, who found themselves in a privileged enough position to make their opinions heard, where women who did not fall into this category felt alienated from the sisterhood.

Third-wave feminists looked back on a divided second wave of aims and ideologies, and aimed to create a new feminism which was more inclusive and individualistic, resulting in an attitude of “revolt against mother”.² These attitudes are central to the countercultural nature of the third wave. This movement of feminism, most prevalent in the 1990s, endeavoured to find a place in feminism for all women, not only those who had been previously represented.³ This led to an emphasis on the personal and individual viewpoints of women, and regarded these as all equally valid, therefore leading to the concept of “choice feminism.”⁴ This belief is underpinned by the idea that true feminism lies in the act of self-determination and the freedom to self-identify, and many third-wave ideologies focus on the unlimited possible variations of identity.⁵ This type of choice feminism is clearly related to the form of intersectional feminism which is popular today. All eras of feminism have the core aim, essentially, of shifting society away from the patriarchy, with values of self-determination and non-judgmentalness.⁶ Third-wave feminists took this to the extreme, often viewing the second wave as judgemental towards each other. Instead, they wished to represent a unified feminist front which advocated for each woman’s viewpoint and right to choose. This, however, also has its issues, the focus on the personal and individual makes it difficult to put forward a unified front with solid and distinctive aims and ideologies.⁷ Many have criticised third-wave feminism as being too idealistic and disorganised, with aims which were too varied and dispersed, resulting in their cause being ineffective.⁸ This is often combated by the idea of choice feminism, with the idea of free choice being of primary importance to third-wave feminists, rather than any specific or detailed goals.⁹ Third-wave feminism is also glaringly isolated to American culture and movements, and so, does not always represent the kind of inclusivity strived for.¹⁰

At this time punk music was also experiencing a resurgence, alongside shifts in musical sound, culture and visual style, much of which was informed by feminist ideology. The early 1990s saw the explosion of riot grrrl punks, mainly situated in the northwestern USA. Many of the major themes of third-wave feminism are present within riot grrrl music and culture, which will be explored in the third chapter. The music often engages with feminist debates and the culture of ‘zines advocated for women to get involved in the genre. The punk genre here acted as a form of expression for women to voice their feminist attitudes and formulate identities, and lends itself to this through innately enabling activism and though its often-angry sound, expressing the seriousness the women within the genre felt that their arguments must be granted. Riot grrrl also strived to reclaim a spectrum of feminine identities and advocated against the sexualising of girlhood, paving the way for many successful female rock and punk influenced artists in both musical sound, lyrical content and visual style and marketing, such as Hole’s Courtney Love, and No Doubt’s Gwen Stefani in the later 90s.¹¹

Riot grrrl is one of the most obvious and relevant examples of a punk movement interacting with, and being inspired by, feminist ideology. Without feminism as a core foundational element, riot grrrl would not exist, and although only lasting for a short time in the early 1990s, it is a highly referenced and influential movement in feminist punk. Riot grrrl is often used as an example in discussions of feminism alone, let alone discussions of feminist punk specifically, and is considered by some to be an extension or expression of third-wave feminism, rather than a separate entity entirely.¹² The movement can be seen as one of collaboration between women, with punk music as the core focus, but also as artists and activists within a group which advocated for women in a new and forceful way, using music not to master sound and technique, but to spread messages through a uniting and emotional medium. Some things which make riot grrrl so impactful and memorable are the fact that this was an almost all-female musical movement, in direct opposition to the male dominated culture which had characterised punk,¹³ and the very targeted imagery the women utilised in their music, visual and personal style, and in the artwork of their ‘zines. I will focus primarily on zines, lyrics, and style in order to explore my subject matter.

This majority-female movement came after a period of male domination in the punk and hardcore genres of the 1980s, which rather curiously coincided with the introduction of postfeminism into mainstream society. It is generally summarised that postfeminists believe that the goals of feminism, starting with first and second-wave feminism, have already been achieved and, therefore, feminism belongs in the past and is no longer a necessary concept (at least in Western society). Although the movement is extremely nuanced and can be viewed as both a positive and negative analytical viewpoint for modern feminists. It is important to discuss the context within which the riot grrrl movement grew, in order to understand both subcultural and countercultural natures of the movement. As Lisa Darms, who experienced the riot grrrl movement first hand, states in the introduction to The Riot Grrrl Collection; in her teenage years during the 80s “the punk scene felt more like a replica of culture-at-large; a violent, self-destructive, and misogynist subculture where boys skated and played in bands, while girls watched”.¹⁴ Riot grrrl, in contrast, strived to build a community where they could be dominant, and this manifested within local student scenes in the northwestern USA, before spreading its influence beyond. 

One of the main ideologies underpinning the values of riot grrrl was, in many ways the same as third-wave feminism, the belief that feminism needed to assert its relevance,¹⁵ in direct opposition to postfeminist thought.¹⁶ Early riot grrrls were not necessarily concerned with music, but with building a community of like-minded feminists and creating spaces for their opinions to be heard, with an attitude of complete acceptance and second-wave wave feminist-style sisterhood and solidarity.¹⁷ With these ideas at the core, early riot grrrls focused on reclaiming space in the music industry, and within style and aesthetics associated with girls and women in derogatory fashions. They aimed to occupy spaces, such as concert venues and stages, and “girls to the front” became a rallying cry for Kathleen Hanna, lead singer of Bikini Kill, indicating that the musicians onstage were attempting to create a safe female space within music where they could interact with the artists and not be pushed aside in place of male punk moshers.¹⁸

‘Zines and Subcultural Expression

Homemade DIY magazines, or ‘zines, as they were dubbed by riot grrrls, were a central component of the subculture. These ‘zines acted as a multitude of resources for girls interested in riot grrrl culture, including being written by and promoting the bands within the scene, sharing womens’ personal viewpoints and opinions, and establishing a defined ideology and style which attracted many young women who also felt similarly.¹⁹ Analysis of these ‘zines provides us with useful insight into the viewpoints of the women central to this movement at the time, and one can see the developing political and punk identities of both individuals and as a group. 

A major publication in this sense was the “Riot Grrrl Manifesto” (figure 1), written by Bikini Kill’s Kathleen Hanna, and distributed first as a flyer in 1989, and then edited to be republished in the second edition of the ‘zine of the same name. As was central to many punk movements before it, riot grrrl was clearly driven by political stimulus, and so this manifesto appropriately fit with the activist and political priorities of riot grrrl’s message. The creation of ‘zines such as Tobi Vail’s (of Bikini Kill) Jigsaw, Bikini Kill, and Girl Germs – written by the members of arguably the next most influential riot grrrl band, Bratmobile, allowed for an example of young women claiming a feminist punk self-identity. The publications acted as vehicles of expression for women at the forefront of the movement to vent their feelings and share the personal viewpoints of both themselves and of other women who sympathised with the cause. In this way, the young women within this scene had total control of their messages, marketing and aesthetics, and began to use subcultural creation and a tool for political and cultural change.²⁰ Alongside this, the ‘zines were a way to spread the riot grrrl message and for the band members and writers to market themselves in any way they desired, curating their identities and supplementing their music with written material to entice and inspire young women with similar views.²¹

These sum up, in the words of those leading the movement, the aims and ideologies expressed through the music, and lyrical content of riot grrrl music often mirrors the same themes. The content of the manifesto, alongside the ‘zines and lyrics, also reflect many of the third-wave feminist ideologies of the early 90s. Riot grrrls were clearly inspired by the new and growing feminist movement and were actively translating this into their own words. For example, the third wave focuses on the value of personal viewpoint, collaboration, and being non-judgmental, and this is conveyed through the content of the ‘zines. Within the opinions expressed within the ‘zines, the third-wave feminist ideologies were evident, messages of collaboration and choice feminism are major themes within the essays and testimonials featured. ‘Zines also published lyrics to songs so that fans could clearly understand the messages being expressed, and flyers were often handed out at gigs containing the lyrics of the music being performed for the same reason.²² The subcultural identity of riot grrrl was experienced through the ‘zine culture, with the sharing of subjective opinions being of primary importance, underpinned by these ideals in third-wave feminism. ‘Zines can be closely compared to the concept of internet forums and social media sites today,²³ as they acted as a platform for young women to explore their notions of self-identity, examine how others identify them, and identify as within the cultural group of riot grrrls.

The Identity of the “Rebel Girl”

Perhaps more important than the sound of punk music (which acts as the auditory emotional vessel), are the lyrics. The lyrical content of the music is often given more thought than the sound, due to its primary importance of spreading messages, and also due to the fact that most punk musicians do not begin as professionals. As riot grrrl began as a movement focussed on feminist activism and writing, lyrics were extremely important to riot grrrl bands. In order to further examine some of the lyrical content of riot grrrl songs, I turn to what is considered by many to be the movement’s anthem,²⁴ Bikini Kill’s “Rebel Girl”. Bikini Kill have become regarded as perhaps the most essential band to the riot grrrl subculture, due to their status as pioneers of the genre and influential ‘zine publications. These lyrics are paired with a stereotypical riot grrrl sound: somewhat simplistic guitar riffs and belting vocals, which encourage easy anthem-like participation from audiences. This song sums up riot grrrl aims to uplift one another as confident female role models:

That girl thinks she’s the queen of the neighbourhood

I got news for you, she is!

They say she’s a slut, but I know

She is my best friend, yeah

[…]

Love you like a sister always

Soul sister, rebel girl

Come and be my best friend

Will you, rebel girl?

I really like you

I really wanna be your best friend

Be my rebel girl

This song takes stereotypically negative connotations relating to women and girls, such as being called a “slut” or overconfident, and transforms them into positive reclaimed forces, with a final verse which reinforces messages of sisterhood and community.²⁵ The identity of the fictional “rebel girl” became an influential force within riot rrrrl.²⁶ The idea of a self-confident woman reclaiming and taking up space within the song’s “neighbourhood” reflects many of the core values of riot grrrl feminism. This fictional girl was a figure which riot grrrls could identify with and reflect through their own personal attitudes. The song also reflects both third-wave feminist and, by extension, riot grrrl ideology by reinforcing the idea of female friendship and community. The “rebel girl” is described as a “best friend” and “soul sister”, which clearly expresses the agendas of Bikini Kill in encouraging a community of feminism to accompany the musical scene, where women could meet up and express their individual views.²⁷ This is entwined with third-wave feminist aims to value the individual perspectives of women and their own choices based on unique circumstances. Although the song itself may be relatively simplistic in both musical sound and lyrical content, the impact of the messages being portrayed resulted in the track becoming a riot grrrl anthem. Through the process of this musical expression, identities are formed – both the self-identity of being a “rebel girl”, and the group-identity of being a collective sisterhood of girls. Both of these factors are important to the creation of a subculture rooted in feminism. The ability to self-identify being a central belief of third-wave feminism, and group identity playing a major role in the creation of a subculture.

Visual Style and Reclaiming Identity

The themes of choice feminism and reclamation of feminine and girlish aesthetics are perhaps even more evident in the personal visual style which accompanies the music of riot grrrl bands. Some of the most memorable, but also most inflammatory, stylistic choices also come from the members of Bikini Kill. Members of Bikini Kill would often scrawl large words on their bodies while performing, for example the iconic image of Kathleen Hanna with “SLUT” written in large font across her torso. This acted as both a cathartic and provocative action.²⁸ From one perspective, writing derogatory words such as this on one’s body can be viewed as a method of reclaiming these labels, and expressing that one is not ashamed of wearing them, both physically and metaphorically. Such behaviour also serves as a statement which combats the social expectations for women to be feminine or gentle, which is something clearly encouraged by riot grrrls such as Bikini Kill, with their rebel identities.²⁹ Today this type of activism is common in movements such as Slutwalk. Body writing in riot grrrl style became a common method of performance art at Bikini Kill concerts, amongst both band members and fans, and contributed to the overall message of reclaiming the negative sexual or feminine labels often bestowed upon young women.³⁰

In juxtaposition, the reclamation of the girlish aesthetic was important to the movement. This is an often cited and thoroughly discussed element of both riot grrrl style and those bands which followed/were inspired by the movement. This linked to the idea of reclamation of vulnerability and femininity which is removed from sexualisation, and instead placed into the context of ironic juxtaposition. Heart-shaped scribbles, almost aggressive use of the colour pink, and clothing choices such as babydoll dresses and ribbon-tied pigtails, all seem to clash with the angry sound of riot grrrl punk. However, this also acts as a reminder that, as many riot grrrls express, women can be both vulnerable and angry simultaneously. An important choice feminist element of the riot grrrl philosophy, expressed through style in this way, is that each woman could choose to claim the label of slut or girl, amongst many others which have previously been used as weapons against women, and wear them in a feminist fashion.

                   

Criticisms and conclusion

Despite the clear pro-feminist message of riot grrrl, many have criticised the genre in many similar ways to criticism of third-wave feminism. For example, despite expressing messages of inclusivity, riot grrrl was dominated by white, middle-class, students and even the women involved in the scene were aware of this at the time.³¹ Riot grrrl is perhaps just as idealistic as third-wave feminism, and imploded after a surprisingly short time, even if this short lifespan was heated, passionate and impactful.³² Riot grrrls can be viewed from the perspective of reckless idealism, as passionate young women who reached for a feminist fantasy which existed for a short time but eventually became diluted as outside influence, such as industry and media criticism, began to create divides and the style was appropriated by more mainstream artists. Riot grrrl seemed to exist in a vacuum of feminist unity, as not all of the music around this time did represent third-wave feminist arguments like riot grrrl, and other examples of alternative music in the early 90s, whether intentionally or not, reinforced the impacts of rape culture.³³

However, whether riot grrrl was an example of unfounded idealism or not, the movement is undoubtedly one of the biggest inspirations for many of the female punk artists since the 1990s. Therefore, it can be argued that the messages of riot grrrl have, at least in part, been passed on to younger generations, changing the way these women may perceive themselves and each other informed by riot grrrl ideology. Female punks today are, more often than not, compared to riot grrrl, and many artists cite the genre as a primary inspiration both in musical sound but also as an extension of the style of feminism they reflected. The culture of riot grrrl and the experience and expression of identity are intrinsically linked, as women within the scene experienced the culture through the formation of their own self-identities, encouraged by third-wave feminist notions of choice and self-determination. This is exemplified by the concept of the “rebel girl” identity, a fictional representation of the fundamental aims of the riot grrrl movement of community and individual choice. The identities of individual riot grrrls contributed to the subculture’s group identity, which reinforced the strength of their message through solidarity. This group identity has proven to be rather impactful, as today’s female punks are often identified as within a riot grrrl revival, even without self-identifying in this way.

1. R. Claire Snyder-Hall, ‘Third-Wave Feminism and the Defense of ‘Choice’’, Perspectives on Politics, 8, no. 1 (2010), 257-258. ↩︎
2. Elizabeth A. Kelly, ‘Review Essay: A New Generation of Feminism? Reflections on the Third Wave’, New Political Science, 27:2 (2005), 234. ↩︎
3. R. Claire Snyder, ‘What Is Third‐Wave Feminism? A New Directions Essay’, Signs Volume 34, Number 1 Autumn (2008), 180. ↩︎
4. Snyder-Hall, ‘Third-Wave Feminism’, 256. ↩︎
5. Snyder, ‘What Is Third‐Wave Feminism?’, 187. ↩︎
6. Snyder-Hall, ‘Third-Wave Feminism’, 255-258. ↩︎
7. Ealasaid Munro, “Feminism: A Fourth Wave?”, Political Insight 4:2 (2013), 23. ↩︎
8. Kelly, “Review Essay: A New Generation”, 237. ↩︎
9. Emilie Zaslow, ‘#IammorethanadistractionConnecting Local Body Polities to a Digital Feminist Movement’, in Emergent Feminisms, 1st ed., ed. by Jessalynn Keller and Maureen Ryan (New York: Routledge, 2018), 93-107. ↩︎
10. R. Claire Snyder, ‘What Is Third‐Wave Feminism?’, 193-192. ↩︎
11. Gayle Wald,, ‘Just a Girl? Rock Music, Feminism, and the Cultural Construction of Female Youth’, Signs, 23, no. 3 (1998), 593-599. ↩︎
12. Soraya Alonso Alconada, ‘Reformulating the Riot Grrrl Movement: Space and Sisterhood in Kathleen Hanna’s Lyrics’, Revista Clepsydra, 20 (Februry, 2021), 107. ↩︎
13. Jessica Rosenberg and Gitana Garofalo. “Riot Grrrl: Revolutions from Within.” Signs 23, no. 3 (1998), 809. ↩︎
14.  Lisa Darms and Johanna Fateman, The Riot Grrrl Collection (New York, NY: Feminist Press, 2013), 8. ↩︎
15. Ibid, 7. ↩︎
16. Sara Marcus, Girls to the Front: The True Story of the Riot Grrrl Revolution (New York: HarperPerennial, 2010), 40. ↩︎
17. Alconada, ‘Reformulating the Riot Grrrl Movement’, 109. ↩︎
18. Ibid, 113, 116. ↩︎
19. Rosenberg and Garofalo, ‘Riot Grrrl’, 810-811. ↩︎
20. Janice Radway, ‘Girl Zine Networks, Underground Itineraries, and Riot Grrrl History: Making Sense of the Struggle for New Social Forms in the 1990s and Beyond,’ Journal of American Studies 50, no. 1 (2016), 29. ↩︎
21. Alconada, ‘Reformulating the Riot Grrrl Movement,’ 105-106. ↩︎
22. Marcus, Girls to the Front, 16 ↩︎
23. Darms and Fateman, The Riot Grrrl Collection, 13. ↩︎
24. Alconada, ‘Reformulating the Riot Grrrl Movement’, 110. ↩︎
25. Joanne Gottlieb and Gayle Wald, ‘Smells Like Teen Spirit: Riot Grrrls, Revolution, and Women in Independent Rock’, Critical Matrix 7, no. 2 (1993), 36. ↩︎
26. Alconada, ‘Reformulating the Riot Grrrl Movement’, 110. ↩︎
27. Gottlieb and Wald, ‘Smells Like Teen Spirit’, 36. ↩︎
28. Laura Havlin, ‘The Riot Grrrl Style Revolution’, AnOther, https://www.anothermag.com/fashion-beauty/8279/the-riot-grrrl-style-revolution [Accessed 29 September 2023]. ↩︎
29. Gottlieb Wald, ‘Smells Like Teen Spirit’, 37-38. ↩︎
30. Leah Perry, ‘I Can Sell My Body If I Wanna: Riot Grrrl Body Writing and Performing Shameless Feminist Resistance’, Lateral, no. 4 (2015), 10-11. ↩︎
31. Darms and Fateman, The Riot Grrrl Collection, 16-17. ↩︎
32. Marion Leonard, ‘‘REBEL GIRL,YOU ARE THE QUEEN OF MY WORLD’: Feminism, ‘subculture’ and grrrl power’, Sexing the Groove: Popular Music and Gender, 1st ed, ed. by Sheila Whiteley (United Kingdom: Routledge, 1997), 248. ↩︎
33. This is discussed further in Elizabeth K Keenan, ‘Asking for It: Rape, Postfeminism, and Alternative Music in the 1990s’, Women & music (Washington, D.C.) 19, no. 1 (2015), 115. ↩︎